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Heritage Key The cemetery at Saqqara is one of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt. Over six kilometres long, it boasts thousands of underground burial sites, as well as the six step Djoser pyramid Egypt's oldest pyramid. 
The ruins at Saqqara have long attracted the interest of explorers, grave-robbers and local people. Travellers first reported evidence of antiquities at Saqqara in the 16th century. The Djoser Pyramid and the smaller pyramids around it were hard to miss but the size of the necropolis only became apparent with the advent of excavations in the 19th century. It was not until Napoleon marched into Egypt in 1798 with his conquering forces that a scientific study of the area began. One of Napoleon's aims in 'liberating' Egypt was to bring modern, scientific enquiry to the study of its monuments. The general established the Institut de l'Égypte and despatched hundreds of scientists to document Egypt's antiquities in depth. The resulting publication, the Description of Egypt, was a lavishly produced catalogue of Ancient Egyptian sites including Saqqara. Enter Karl Richard Lepsius Napoleon's short-lived expedition was followed by a wave of antiquities dealers and thieves, who bought, sold and transported artefacts all over the world. Archaeological techniques in the early days of Egyptology were at best rudimentary and at worst destructive. In the first half of the 19th century it was common for archaeologists to dismantle whole tombs and ship them abroad. A new era of serious archaeology began with the arrival of German archaeologist Karl Richard Lepsius, one of the founding fathers of Egyptology, who explored Saqqara in 1842. Lepsius conducted the first in-depth survey of the New Kingdom cemetery at Saqqara. In common with his ground-breaking work in Giza and Dashur, Lepsius's discoveries paved the way for all the archaeologists that followed him. Lepsius and his team documented and drew numerous sites that have since deteriorated or been destroyed. His detailed surveys are still used today and his cartography expanded existing geographical knowledge of Egypt. Discovery of the Serapeum In 1851 Frenchman Auguste Mariette discovered the Serapeum, an underground tomb dating back to the reign of Amenhotep III (1391 1353 BC). The Serapeum was the final resting place of revered Apis bulls, which were embalmed and entombed in sarcophagi. Mariette was sent to Egypt by the Louvre on a mission to purchase Coptic manuscripts. Having had little success, Mariette developed an interest in excavations. His big break came when he stumbled across the head of a sphinx in the sands at Saqqara. This proved to one statue on an avenue of over a hundred sphinxes leading to the Serapeum a boulevard first described by the Greek writer Strabo in the 1st century AD. In 1851, Mariette penetrated the sealed temple. Inside, he discovered a huge gallery where bulls were buried from the 26th Dynasty up to the Ptolemaic Period. The chamber contained 24 large granite sarcophagi alongside innumerable statues and treasures. Mariette's remarkable find shed much light on the Apis cult and on the ancient Egyptians' attitudes toward animals. The bulls were believed to be living incarnations of the deity Ptah, the god of creation and of craftsmen, and were treated like royalty throughout their lives. Monastery of Apa Jeremias In 1905 the leading British Egyptologist James Edward Quibell was appointed chief inspector at Saqqara. His major find was the discovery of the Monastery of Apa Jeremias, founded in the 5th century AD. Many of the building materials in the monastery had been recycled from Ancient Egyptian tombs, including valuable limestone reliefs. These were transferred to Cairo Museum for display. Step Pyramid Complex Quibell's successor, Cecil Mallaby Firth, led excavations around the Djoser Pyramid in the 1910s and 20s. Undoubtedly the jewel of the Saqqara necropolis, the pyramid was the final resting place of King Djoser (2630 2611BC) and was the forerunner of all the pyramids followed. The pyramid's revolutionary design is attributed to Imhotep, master architect, doctor, vizier and scribe. Until the Djoser pyramid, Egypt's rulers were buried inside mastabas essentially large stone blocks. Imhotep's innovation was to stack mastabas of decreasing size on top of each other to form a step pyramid. The Djoser pyramid consists of six mastabas piled to a height of 62m. Firth's other work included excavations around the semi-destroyed Teti Pyramid. His sudden death in 1931 cut short his tenure as Inspector of Antiquities at Saqqara. In 1926, Firth was joined by Jean-Philippe Lauer, who assisted in the excavations of the Djoser Pyramid. Remarkably, Lauer spent the next 75 years working at Saqqara, focusing on the restoration of the Step Pyramid. He died in 2001 at the age of 99. Walter Bryan Emery In 1935, the excavations at Saqqara fell under the oversight of the Liverpool-born Egyptologist Walter Bryan Emery. Among his major discoveries at Saqqara was tomb S3357. The oldest tomb at Saqqara, S3357 is associated with King Aha, one of the first pharaohs although researchers believe he may have been buried elsewhere. The Second World War placed a temporary halt on all work in Egypt. After the war and a spell in the diplomatic service, Emery returned to Saqqara. In 1964, whilst searching for the tomb of Imhotep, he discovered a huge animal necropolis. This 'mummified zoo' consisted of thousands of preserved animals including ibis, hawks, baboons, dogs, cats and cows. The Lost Pyramid of Sekhemkhet In 1951, an Egyptian archaeologist by the name of Zakaria Goneim found the unfinished pyramid of Djoser's successor, Sekhemkhet, to the southwest of the Djoser pyramid. Only the first step of the pyramid rising to around seven metres was completed before the pharaoh's death. Nonetheless, Goneim found evidence that the pyramid had been used as a burial chamber and had not been disturbed for over 4,000 years. Experts believe that, if completed, the pyramid would have a larger and more ambitious version of the Djoser Pyramid. The similarities in design to the early pyramid and graffiti found at the site indicate that Imhotep was also responsible for Sekhemkhet's tomb. Modern Excavations Teams of international architects have been working at Saqqara for decades. French archaeologists under Jean-Philippe Lauer and Jean Leclant have continued to document and survey the pyramids at Saqqara. They have also dedicated themselves to studying and translating pyramid texts funerary inscriptions found on the walls inside the Saqqara monuments. Since 1980 Frenchman Alain Zivie has been exploring New Kingdom tombs at Saqqara. In 1996 he discovered the tomb of Netjerwymes, a trusted messenger and adviser to Rameses II. Ongoing work at the site has uncovered a beautifully preserved chapel containing prized reliefs and inscriptions. In the 1980s, a team from Cairo University tapped a vein of New Kingdom tombs near the Monastery of Apa Jeremias. Between 1984 and 1988 Sayed Tewfik uncovered the tombs of 35 royal servants including viziers, treasurers and butlers. A more recent expedition has uncovered several significant tombs dating from the reign of Rameses II. Another team from Macquarie University in Australia has been working at Saqqara in conjunction with the Supreme Council of Antiquities. Their excavations have focused on the Old Kingdom tombs around the Teti Pyramid. In 1987, the Polish archaeologist Karol My[liwiec dug three trial pits to the west of the Djoser Pyramid. This sand-blown area had previously been neglected by researchers at Saqqara. My[liwiec's work indicated that the western portion of the necropolis was equally rich in buried treasures. A joint Polish-Egyptian expedition with archaeologists from Warsaw University has been working at a concession in this area since 1996. Dutch Excavations at Saqqara Dutch archaeologists have been active in Saqqara since 1975. The team initially set out to find the tomb of Maya, treasurer and adviser to Tutankhamum, by following directions left by Lepsius over a century earlier. Lepsisus's descriptions proved somewhat inaccurate. However, the team struck gold with the discovery of the tomb built by General Horemheb when he was still military leader under Tutankhamun. After the boy king's death, Horemheb became pharaoh and was buried in the Valley of Kings. Maya's burial chamber was eventually uncovered in 1986, but the Dutch team continued to excavate at Saqqara, focusing on the area around the tomb of Horemheb. Recent Developments at Saqqara Despite over 150 years of digging, Saqqara remains one of the most fertile grounds for archaeologists working in Egypt. Experts predict there could be hundreds, even thousands of tombs and burial chambers still to be uncovered. The Dutch expedition alone estimates it will need another 25 years to study its concession in depth. Archaeologist Vassil Dobrev is currently scouring the necropolis searching for the lost tomb of the Pharoah Userkare. Saqqara hit the headlines again in October 2009 with the news that the Supreme Council of Antiquities had banned the Louvre from conducting any further work at the necropolis. The dispute centres over five stolen artefacts allegedly sold to the museum in 1980. The Louvre agreed to return the disputed objects. It is not the first time Egyptian authorities have attempted to assert their claim over objects removed illegally from the country. Egypt has suspended co-operation with the St Louis Art Museum in the United States after it refused to return the mask of Ka-Nefer-Nefer. The mask was discovered at Saqqara in 1952 and was apparently stolen in 1959. The hotly-disputed Bust of Nefertiti still remains in Berlin's Neues Museum, despite pressure from Egypt to return it. Two hundred years on from Napoleon's expedition and the riches of Saqqara remain hotly contested. Archaeologists hope that the necropolis still has many more treasures to yield.
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